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Early
Sculptors
The early sculptors of Thailand were faced with an awe-inspiring
task. For it was their responsibility to capture the intangible,
invisible gods and translate their power, their beauty and their
spirituality into figures of bronze or stone. Fortunately a number
of guidelines existed to help them. Since most of the early images
carved in the region were representations of either Hindu deities
or the Buddha, the sculptors were obliged to follow certain rules,
originally devised in India, the source of both religions.
 Thailand’s
early sculptors had the advantage of being able to copy images brought
here by visitors from India were a perfection of style had been
reached by about the 5th century AD. It was not the sculptor’s job
to be innovative: the more perfectly they copied a beautiful image,
the better it was considered to be. However, it was only natural
that local craftsman should begin to breathe new life into old forms,
and with the passage of years local features and preferences of
style became more and more evident. Indeed after many centuries,
the styles can be seen to have changed quite dramatically. The astonishing
thing is that so many craftsmen, never exposed to sophisticated
schools of art or theoretical concepts, managed so successfully
to create images of astounding beauty and individuality, which without
doubt portray the serenity and the spirituality of the Buddha nature.
And yet we know very little about the early sculptors themselves.
We do not know the name of a single one of them. Just occasionally
the name of a patron or donor will appear in an inscription, but
the name of the sculptor is never revealed.
Thai
Buddha Image
It was most important, for instance, that an image
of the Buddha should not be confused with any ordinary person, or
indeed with a Hindu deity. In India the very earliest images of
the Buddha were not made until several hundreds years after his
death, and since no realistic portraits of him existed, the Buddhist
authorities invented thirty-two special features which were to be
included in a true and instantly recognizable image of the Buddha.
In practice was not possible to include every feature in each image,
but the most important one are always present. For instance, Buddha
images display a strange lump on the top of the head. This is called
ushnisa it is symbolic of the Buddha’s wisdom and is one of the
keys identifying features. The body and limps of a Buddha image
are depicted in a highly stylized fashion and show little evidence
of bone and muscle. This in no way reflects the inability of the
early sculptors to model the human physique more accurately. It
is the result of the way that several of the thirty-two special
features were combined in an endeavor to portray the Buddha superiority
to the average man, and his profound spiritual purity. In Thailand
his body is asexual, this aspect signifying the conquering of physical
desire by the disciplining of his mind. The Buddha’s eyes are usually
downcast, shaped like the buds of lotus flower and the mouth smile
gently to enhance the aura of inner peace.
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Mon
Dvaravati
 The
collapse of the Funan Empire in the mid Sixth century AD permitted
the emergence of many independent stated throughout Southeast Asia.
In Thailand one of these state was called Dvaravati and its center
appears to have been at the head of the Bight of Bangkok, off the
Gulf of Thailand. The main cities were Nakhon Pathom, Lopburi and
U Thong. The word "Dvaravati" is also used to describe an art style
that flourished from the 7th-11th century AD throughout almost the
entire area of present-day Thailand.
Little is known about the political organization
of Dvaravati. It was most probably a kingdom, which consisted of
a group of cities loosely, linked together by cultural and family
ties. What we do know of Dvaravati derives mainly from the vast
amount of superb sculpture, which remains. The majority of the people
of Dvaravati were Mon and the language they spoke was Mon, which
is related to the Khmer language and to several other dialects still
spoken throughout Southeast Asia. Judging from the predominates
finds, the religion of the Mon was Hinayana Buddhism. During the
mid-Dvaravati period –8th-9th century AD Mahayana Buddhism was also
practiced. Some finds of sculptures of Hindu gods indicate that
Hinduism was followed too.
Dvaravati
Style
The Mon were highly skilled artists who excelled
in stone sculpture, stucco and terracotta architectural decoration,
and, to a lesser degree, in bronze work. Their art stile was mainly
influenced by the Gupta and posts Gupta styles that flourished in
central and western India between the 4th and 8th centuries. However,
the facial features of Dvaravati Buddha images exhibit pronounced
native elements- a large face, curved eyebrows joined at the bridge
of the nose, prominent eyes partly closed, a broad nose, thick and
well-defined lips. The hair is in a large spiral curls with a cylindrical
ushnisha or cranial protuberance. Later standing Dvaravati images
exhibit rigid symmetry; the body stands in erect posture with the
feet firmly planted on a lotus pedestal; both hands perform the
same mudra; the outer robe covers both shoulders and clings closely
to the body, giving an impression of nude asexually; both sides
of the robe are identical. Seated Buddha images are either with
legs crossed or folded or with legs hanging down.
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Khmer
and Lopburi
In about the 6th century AD the Khmer, a people
linguistically related to the Mon, came down the Mekhong river valley.
Some settled in Northeastern Thailand; others went on to the area,
which is now Cambodia. By the following century statues bearing
the impact of the Khmer style were being sculptured in what is now
Thailand. From the 7th century to the mid 13th, the military prowess
of the Khmer increased until a large portion of Thailand was under
their control; finally in the 13th century the Thais were able to
rise up, overcome the Khmer and become their own master. The art
of the Khmer in Thailand has often been called Lopburi Art after
the city of that name in Central Thailand, which was the major Khmer
seat of provincial administration. This designation has been given
to indicate that the art is not merely the creation from the Khmer
of the Angkor area but that of the local peoples as well, who introduced
new stylistic ideas of their own and left their distinctive imprint.
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 Lan
Na Thai
A theory that traditionally has been given considerable
credence holds by the 11th century AD, migrating Thai tribes had
infiltrated and settle in the regions of northern Thailand. By 1297,
under the leadership of the dynamic King Mengrai, a northern kingdom
known as Lan Na Thai extended from Chiang Saeng in the far north
through to Chiang Rai, Chang Mai, Lamphun and Lampang. Chiang Mai
was established as the capital of the kingdom, which shared the
Buddhist belief and to some extent the culture of the earlier Mon
kingdom of Haripunjaya in the Lamphung region.
Lan
Na Style
The art produced in the Lan Na Thai Kingdom between
11th and 18th centuries AD is the object of current scholarly debate,
as many influences have contributed to its distinctive qualities,
including those from Haripunjaya, Angkor. Sukhothai, Sri Lanka,
India and Burma. Though there is much controversy over the origin
and dating of northern Buddha Images, this Lan Na region can be
said to have produced two distinctive types. The first type is something
called Early Chiang Saen after the town where many such images were
found, whereas the second type has traditionally been known as Late
Chiang Sean or Chiang Mai. Images of the first type have heavy solidity
of the body and give an impression of great strength and virile
energy, with massive shoulders, the chest inflated as if with yogic
breath, and a slim waistline. Typically, surmounting the conical
ushnisha is a knob-like final, perhaps a lotus bulb or a gem, though
to have derived from contacts with India. Below the prominent curl-covered
hairline, the face is round and flashy, almost sensual. The massive,
almost corpulent, body is clothed in robe worn in the open mode,
and the flap of the robe is short, ending above the left breast.
The right hand touches the right knee in the mudra of Victory over
Mara. Adding to the impression of restrained strength, the legs
are crossed, with the ankles locked in full lotus position, the
soles of the feet pointing upwards. From the mid-15th century onward,
contact with the Sukhothai led to Lan Na Thai image being made slimmer
of body. The face became more elongated and oval, and the Sukhothai
flame rather than the lotus, in time surmounted the ushnisha, The
short flap of the robe gave away to an elongated one that terminated
above the waistline instead of the breast. Images with these characteristics
are known as the Late Chiang Saen or Chiang Mai type.
The richness and grandeur of the early Lan Na Thai
Kingdom, which flourished up to the Burmese conquest of the north
in 1556, is also reflected in its handsome gilded miniature objects
of art. Many such exquisite objects were unearthed from the ruined
chedis of Hod in Chiang Mai province in 1960 . The magnificent collection
includes Buddhist votive objects, and also miniature specimens of
Lan Na religious architecture, as well as animal figures such as
elephants, deer, goats, frogs, ducks, and two-headed birds.
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 Sukhothai
The origins of the Thai people are shrouded in
legend. Current scholarly debate questions traditionally held beliefs
that they had migrated over the centuries ( prior to the 13th century)
into northern and upper central Thailand, possibly from regions
of Southern China, and perhaps areas further east or north. However,
it is with these people in the Sukhothai region and their rise to
greatness that the history of Thailand, or Siam, is said to have
begun. Until the middle of the 13th century AD regions of what today
are northeast and central Thailand were under Khmer rule. At that
time, at Sukhothai, a group of independent Thai Chieftains who owed
allegiance to the Khmer were able to throw off the Khmer yoke and
establish themselves as rulers. Although this kingdom of Sukhothai
(translated as the Dawn Of Happiness) adjoined only a brief period
of independent flowering-less than 200 years before it was absorbed
in 1438 by the power of Ayutthaya of the central plains-it is regarded
by the Thais as a Golden Age, the found of traditions still practiced
today. Sukhothai and his regional towns reveal that although the
Hindu beliefs of the banished Khmer were partially retained, it
was the Buddhist faith that gave impetus to the new civilization.
The third King of Sukhothai, Ramkhamhaeng, regarded by Thais as
the father of the nation and creator of the Thai alphabet, records
on his 1292 inscription the abundant prosperity and religious piety
of the people who flock to numerous Buddhist Sanctuaries, both inside
and outside the city walls.
Sukhothai
Style
To the uninitiated eye Sukhothai period Buddha
images may at first appear awkward and distorted. This "distortion"
is deliberate, as sculptors did not base their images on human models
but on close and literal interpretation of metaphors from religious
verses and Pali languages scriptures, which specified the many distinguishing
marks of lakshanas of the Great Being. Accordingly, the artist created
images that were intended to reflect the superhuman spiritual and
compassionate nature of the Buddha. Characteristically, classic
Sukhothai images are seated on a plain base, with the right hand
placed near the knee, performing the gesture of Calling the Earth
to Witness or Victory over Mara, representing the moment of Enlightenment.
Soaring above the ushnisha or skull protuberance is a Sukhothai
innovation, the Thai flame, symbolizing the Buddha’s radiant spiritual
energy. The hairline forms a delicate V-shape at the top of the
brow. This shape is echoed by the curved sweep of the arched eyebrows
which join at the bridge of a substantial almost hooked nose, shaped
like "a parrot’s beak" according to the scriptures. Three lines
incised at the neck are also marks of the Great Being, as are the
elongated earlobes denoting the Buddha’s former princely status.
The shoulders of Sukhothai images are extremely broad, and the chest
inflated, as if with yogic breath. As stipulated in the scriptures,
the arms are long and sinuous, "like the trunk of a young elephant".
This convention is particularly evident in the images of the Walking
Buddha in the full round, a Sukhothai innovation.
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U
Thong
In 1350 King U Thong established the kingdom of
Ayutthaya, which was to become one of the most important and long-lasting
kingdoms on the mainland of Southeast Asia. The kingdom was situated
in the Menan (or Chao Phraya) basin, previously occupied by the
Dvaravati kingdom and then by the Khmer, and was to the south of
its political rival, Sukhothai. The name U Thong has been used to
designate the art, which flourished in this central plain area of
Thailand from the 12th century until approximately the 15th century.
U
Thong Style
Many Images in the U Thong style predate the founding
of the Ayutthaya kingdom. The earliest image date f5rom the 12th
century, but are usually incorporate by scholars into the Early
Ayutthaya period. The U Thong style of Buddha image is divided into
three different phases called by art historians A B, and C. Type
A is the earliest (12th to 13th century), with types B and C somewhat
overlapping in time (types B spans the 13th to 14th century, while
type C dates from the 13th to the 15th century).
Features common to almost all three types include
a small band between the hairline and forehead, the robe draped
in the open mode with a long flap from the left shoulder ending
in a strait line above the navel. All have fingers of unequal length.
The head is covered with small sometimes-spiky curls. The image
is generally seated, with the legs folded, on a simple concave base
and perform the gesture of Subduing Mara or Calling the Earth to
witness. Bronze was the favored medium, although stucco and sandstone
image was also made. The faces of early U Thong images are square
and show a mixture of Mon and Khmer characteristic. In later images,
oval faces are the result of Sukhothai influence, which was to prevail.
In U Thong A images the ushnisha is usually surmounted by a lotus
bud. In styles B and C, this is replaced by an elongated flame.
Similarly, the silhouette of the images of this time also becomes
elongate through Sukhothai influence. Graceful and slander, images
of the U Thong C style were produced in great numbers and were to
influence images if the whole Ayutthaya period.
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 Ayutthaya
The Ayutthaya style of the Buddha image appeared
in the 15th century, and was inspired by both Sukhothai and U Thong
characteristic. Bronze remained the favorite material for Ayutthaya
sculpture. However, sandstone images occupy a prominent place in
this period, and stucco image also seem the have been popular although
few now remain. Wood sculptures were great works of art; the talent
if the woodcarvers of Ayutthaya can still be seen in some doors
and pediments of temples. But the burning of Ayutthaya by the Burmese
in 1767 destroyed most of them.
Ayutthaya
Style
The images of the Ayutthaya period are represented
in more varied attitudes and gestures than in any other period of
Thai art. A great number of images show Buddha seated in the position
of Victory over Mara. However, standing Buddha’s were very popular.
These standing images show a variety of hand gestures: hands clasped
over the chest, holding the alms bowl, argumentation (teaching),
or more often, dispelling fear, with one or two hands raised. Reclining
images were frequent; some of them made in colossal proportions.
The art of the Ayutthaya period, which lasted from 1350 until 1767,
is generally divided into four subperiods, reflecting the waxing
and waning of various earlier artistic traditions as well as innovation
of the time.
From the 1350 until the 15th century, Buddha images
of the U Thong B and C style were popular and formed a transition
from the U Thong period to the Ayutthaya period. The body of the
image is often elongated; the face is at first squarish and later
oval, delineated by a hair band, with a Sukhothai type of flame
on top of the ushnisha.
From the mid-15th century until 17th century, the Sukhothai influence
prevailed, but U Thong C characteristic were evident. The facial
expression changed. The smile became very faint or not existent,
and often the expression was stern. The base of images became more
decorated, occasionally illustrating episodes of the life of Buddha.
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Ratanakosin
After the destruction of Ayutthaya by the Burmese
in 1767, a New Kingdom was founded in Thonburi under King Taksin.
Subsequently, in 1782, the capital was moved to Bangkok, with the
foundation of the Chakri dynasty, whose kings are known retrospectively
by the title "Rama". The art of the Bangkok period can be divided
into two distinct artistic areas. The earlier era spans the reigns
of King Rama I to King Rama III (1782-1851) and embraces classical
Siamese traditions. The latter era dates from the reign of King
Rama IV to the present, incorporating both classical and modern
westernized elements.
Ratanakosin
Style
During the early Bangkok period as many as 1,200
extant images were brought down to Bangkok from war-torn areas of
central and northern Thailand and were installed in the city’s new
monasteries. Artists vied to create lofty and ornate thrones for
them. Consequently, relatively few images were made during that
period. New images, when made, were either cast in bronze or carved
from wood, and generally followed the Ayutthaya tradition of Buddha
image-making. These can barely be distinguished from their earliest
prototypes. Though some were plain, many of these early Bangkok
period images were elaborately decorate, with artists striving to
outdo their predecessors in abundant ornamentation. Thus the originally
simple monk’s robe apparel of the image was entirely decorated with
embroidery-like designs, and heavy ornate bands embellished the
edges of the robes. The refinement and simplicity of Buddha images
in earlier periods gave away to regal ornamentation and, some would
say, a loss of spirituality in the image
During the reign of King Rama III , images of the
Buddha were commissioned depicting thirty-four new attitudes, all
drawn from important events in the life of the Buddha. However,
the new attitudes proved unpopular and the six traditional attitudes
remain the most common.
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Laos
The art of Laos is a provincial version of the
art of Siam. The Thai kingdom of Laos, the first of which was founded
about 1360, were all, in that inhospitable region of narrow river
valleys and jungle-clad mountains, small, uncoordinated and not
very prosperous. The primitive Mon people upon whom the Thai imposed
themselves had not made in that hostile environment any substantial
cultural advances as other Mon peoples had done in Cambodia, Siam,
and Burma. Hinayana Buddhism came in from Siam, but it came without
any substratum of older tradition. There were no stone buildings,
and the few durable structures in Laos, of brick and stucco, are
provincial versions of the art of Ayutthaya. The most interesting
and beautiful of these is the That Luang at Vientiane. This is a
strupa formed as a low dome of square section crowned by a striking
tall spire of the sinuously moulded shape found everywhere in recent
Burmese and Siamese architecture, for example, the golden palace
in Mandalay. The characteristic Buddhist buildings of Laos are all
of wooden construction, on wooden pillars, with long, steep, stepped-out
roofs. Flamboyant finials mark the upcurved ends of the ridgepoles,
and the eaves extend to cover wide verandahs. The Buddhism images
these buildings contain are all crude versions of Ayutthaya types.
Some bronzes appear to be fairly old, but many of the wooden figures
are gilt, plated, and inlaid in base Bangkok style. Some of them
are given a vigor their Bangkok prototypes do not have by the primitive
directness of their carving, which states clearly conceived plastic
forms.
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